Sheep Nutrition

• Efficient foragers: Can digest lower quality forage than cattle
• Wool production: Continuous nutrient demand; contains 90% protein and sulfur
• Grazing preference: Shorter grasses and herbs; selective grazers
• Crude protein: 10-14% depending on production stage
• Pregnancy (ewes):
  • 145-150 days gestation
  • Early/mid pregnancy: maintenance requirements
  • Last 6 weeks: 20-40% increase due to multiple lambs
  • Flushing: 7-14 days prior to breeding; increased energy 25-50%
• Lactation: 4-5 months; peak at 3-4 weeks; twin/triplet lambs increase demands
• Lamb growth: Birth weight 3-5 kg; nursing ~4 months; creep feeding from 2 weeks

Goat Digestive Efficiency & Feed Utilization

• Superior Digestive Efficiency: Highest among ruminants; optimizes forage conversion better than sheep and cattle
• Browse Preference: Prefer shrubs, branches, leaves (5-150 mm) over ground grasses; excellent for marginal land management
• Selective Grazers: Choose highest quality plant parts; natural ability for land clearing and brush control
• Terrain Adaptation: Excellent climbers; thrive on steep and rocky terrain unsuitable for cattle/sheep

Dairy Goat Production Systems

• Milk Yield: 5-8% of body weight per day (exceptional relative to body size; significantly superior to sheep on same diet)
• Milk Composition: Similar to cow milk; excellent for dairy products, cheese, and specialty foods
• Production Cycles: Shorter than sheep (allows multiple annual breedings in managed systems)
• Lactation Duration: 10 months possible in managed systems (range 8-12 months with individual variation)
• Peak Production: 3-4 weeks post-parturition; individual variation significant

Pregnancy & Lactation Requirements (Does)

Gestation: 150 days (5 months; constant across all goat types)

• Early/Mid pregnancy (Days 0-105): maintenance level nutrition adequate
• Late pregnancy (Last 4-5 weeks): 20-40% increase for fetal development (typically 2-3 kids per doe)
• Flushing: increased nutrition pre-breeding improves conception and prolificacy
• Udder development: critical final weeks of pregnancy

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Lactation Nutritional Requirements:

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• Crude Protein: 12-16% depending on production level (higher for peak production)
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• Daily Dry Matter Intake: 3-4% of body weight
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• Energy: High relative to body weight; quality forage essential for yield
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• Minerals: Calcium and phosphorus balance critical for milk production
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• Duration: 10 months possible; peak 3-4 weeks post-parturition
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Common Ruminant Feeding Challenges

• Acidosis: Excessive grain/concentrate causes rumen pH drop (<6.0); reduces VFA production
• Bloat: Excessive legumes or lush spring growth causes gas accumulation
• Grass tetany: Low magnesium in spring pasture; fatal if untreated
• Ketosis: Negative energy balance in early lactation; insufficient carbohydrate metabolism
• Displaced abomasum: Physical shift of abomasum in dairy cattle; common post-parturition
• Nutritional deficiencies: Copper, cobalt, selenium regionally dependent; can cause major production losses

Digestive Physiology of Horses

Horses are hindgut fermenters with a unique digestive system optimized for continuous intake of forage.

Key Anatomical Features:

• Saliva Production: >20 liters per day (no α-amylase)
• Stomach: 9-15L capacity with two regions:
  • Non-glandular region (fermentation): pH 4-5
  • Glandular region (enzymatic digestion): pH 2-3
• Small Intestine: Primary site for non-structural carbohydrate and nutrient absorption
• Cecum & Colon: Large intestine passage time 36-48 hours; VFAs provide up to 75% of energy when diet is high in fiber

Nutrient Digestibility in Horses

Nutrient	Digestibility %	Notes
Starch	65-75%	Digested in small intestine; max 1-1.5 g/kg body weight per feeding
Protein	60-70%	Variable based on source quality
Fat	90%	High digestibility; supports energy needs
Phosphorus	20-25%	Low bioavailability; often supplemented

Grazing Behavior & Feed Intake

• Selective grazers: spend 50% of day grazing
• Daily dry matter intake (non-working from pasture): 2 kg DM / 100 kg body weight
• Colic prevention requires: consistent feed quality, regular feeding schedule, diet changes over 10-14 days minimum

Energy Requirements

• Maintenance: 1.6 DE
• Light Work: +25% above maintenance
• Medium Work: +50% above maintenance
• Heavy Work: +100% above maintenance
• Optimal Protein:Energy Ratio: 5-7 g digestible CP per unit of energy (varies by life stage)

Pregnant & Lactating Mares

Gestation: 11 months (330 days)

• Early pregnancy (first 8 months): similar to maintenance requirements
• Late pregnancy (last 3 months): significantly higher nutrient demands
• Total weight gain: foal represents 8-10% of mare's body weight (~40 kg for average mare)
• Daily gain requirement: 0.45 kg/day during late gestation
• Daily dry matter intake: 1.5-2.0% of body weight
• Protein requirement: 7 g digestible CP per unit energy
• Total gestation weight gain: 12-16% above non-pregnant baseline

Lactation: 5-6 months; peak at 3 months

• Early lactation (first 3 months): highest demands
• Peak milk production: 10-18 liters per day
• Protein requirement: 9 g digestible CP per unit energy
• Daily dry matter intake: 2-3% of body weight
• Late lactation (last 3 months): declining production and requirements

Foal Nutrition

• Birth Weight: 10% of adult mare weight (typically 30-50 kg)
• Growth Rate: Double birth weight within 30-35 days
• Colostrum: 12-18 hours post-birth; 3-5 liters in first 12 hours
• Nursing Period: 2-3 months primary nutrition from dam
• Creep Feeding: Begin 1 month before weaning
  • 1.5-2.5 kg grain / 100 kg body weight
  • 0.75-1.0 kg hay / 100 kg body weight
• Protein Ratio: 9-10:1 digestible CP to energy
• 6-Month Requirements: 15% crude protein minimum

Performance & Breeding Horses

Breeding Stallion:

• Increase energy and nutrients 4-6 weeks prior and during mating season
• Protein: high quality, 8-10% crude protein
• Fat supplementation: 20-40 ml linoleic acid per 100 kg body weight
• Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio: 4:1
• Minerals: Ca 0.3-0.35%, P 0.2-0.25%

Performance Horses (Work):

• Crude protein: 8-10%
• Digestible protein:energy ratio: 5:1
• Forage minimum: 50% of diet
• Aerobic work (>10 min moderate intensity): utilize fats and fiber for fuel
• Anaerobic work (<1 min high intensity): utilize starch and glucose

Special Categories

Growing Horses: Until 24-30 months; require higher quality feeds and careful mineral balance

Body Condition Scoring: 1-9 scale (5 = ideal)

• Broodmares: maintain 5-7 throughout breeding cycle
• Breeding stallions: maintain 5-6
• Performance horses: maintain 4-6

Geriatric Horses:

• Decreased fiber digestibility
• Often require highly digestible fiber (sugar beet pulp)
• Addition of fat aids digestion and energy density

Digestive System & Feed Utilization

Swine are monogastric with enzymatic digestion suited to concentrate-based diets.

• Major digestion site: stomach (enzymatic)
• Major absorption site: small intestine
• Dietary fiber provides ~30% of energy in gestating sows via VFA production

Mineral Content & Feed Additives

Phytate Phosphorous: 60-80% of total P in grains; reduces bioavailability

Copper & Zinc Antimicrobial Properties:

Nutrient & Stage	Dosage	Duration
Copper (Cu) - Nursing to 4 weeks post-weaning	150-170 mg/kg feed	Full period
Copper (Cu) - 5-8 weeks post-weaning	100-170 mg/kg feed	Full period
Zinc oxide	Max 150 ppm	≤150 ppm mandatory from 2022

Phase Feeding Strategy

Multiple diets provided for short periods optimize nutrient delivery and minimize waste:

Sows and piglets follow structured phase feeding programs based on growth stage and physiological state.

Sow Management Phases

Flushing (Pre-Breeding): 1-2 weeks prior to breeding

• Increase energy intake 25%
• Ration: 2.7-3.6 kg per day for 10-14 days pre-breeding

Pregnancy: 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)

• Early (Days 0-20): Low nutritional requirements
• Mid (Days 20-90): Medium nutritional requirements
• Late (Days 90-114): High nutritional requirements
• Daily Intake: 2.2-2.5 kg per day

Lactation: 1 month (30 days)

• Ad libitum feeding (unlimited access)
• Daily intake: 5.8-6.6 kg feed mixture
• Crude protein: 16-18%
• Lysine minimum: 0.9%
• Crude fiber limit: 3-4%
• Peak milk production (Day 21): 10-12 liters per day

Piglet Management

Birth to Pre-Weaning:

• Birth weight: ~1.5 kg
• Iron injection: 3-5 days (prevent anemia)
• Body fat at birth: only 2%
• Temperature requirement: ≥33°C first days
• Colostrum: 250-300 mL essential for passive immunity (quality decreases quickly)
• Solid feed introduction: 7-10 days
• Milk conversion: 4.3 kg milk per 1 kg piglet gain

Weaning: 21, 28, or 35 days post-birth

• Pre-weaning requirement: must consume 200g starter daily
• Body weight at weaning: ~8 kg
• Creep feed: high protein, low fiber

Growing & Fattening Pigs

Gilts (Young Females):

• Target age for first breeding: 220-230 days
• Target body weight: 130-140 kg
• Focus: preparation and maintenance of high future productivity

Boar (Young):

• Daily intake: 2.3-2.5 kg
• Crude protein: 14-17%
• Growth strategy: restrict energy for gradual, controlled growth

Boar (Mature):

• Daily intake: 2.5-2.7 kg

Fattening Pigs (Pigs to Market):

• Time to slaughter: 5-5.5 months total
• Average daily gain (ADG): 800 g
• Feed conversion ratio (FCR): 2.4-2.7 kg per kg gain (must stay below 3.0)
• Lean meat percentage: ≥55%
• Phase feeding: 3-4 different diets throughout growth

Unique Nutritional Demands

Poultry have critical nutritional needs due to:

• Faster digestion and nutrient absorption
• Faster respiration and circulation
• Higher body temperature (40-41°C)
• Rapid growth rate
• Feed costs represent 55-75% of production costs

Digestive Anatomy

• Crop: Storage organ for feed
• Proventriculus: Glandular stomach (enzymatic digestion)
• Gizzard: Muscular grinding organ (mechanical digestion)
• Two Ceca: Limited fermentation site
• Cloaca: Common opening for digestive, urinary, reproductive systems

Antinutritional Factors in Feed

Factor	Source	Effect	Mitigation
Beta-glucans	Barley (higher), oats	Increases intestinal viscosity; reduces nutrient absorption	Enzyme supplementation; feed processing
Gossypol	Cotton seed meal	Discolors egg yolks; causes mottling	Limit use; select gossypol-free varieties
Trypsin Inhibitor	Raw soybean meal	Inhibits protein digestion	Heat treatment destroys inhibitor

Specific Nutrient Requirements

Calcium:Phosphorus Ratio (Laying Hens): 4:1 to 9:1

• Critical for eggshell quality and bone integrity
• Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol): preferred form; D2 (ergocalciferol) only 3% effective

Minerals:

• Manganese (Mn): essential for egg production; deficiency causes perosis (slipped tendon)

Broiler Production

• Market Weight: 2 kg live = ~1.5 kg dressed
• Time to Slaughter: 35-36 days
• Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): 1.7-1.9 kg per kg gain
• Phase Feeding:
  • Starter (0-10 days): >20% crude protein
  • Grower (10-28 days): 20-22% crude protein
  • Finisher (28-36 days): 18-20% crude protein

Laying Hens & Other Poultry

Layers: Continuous nutrient demand for egg production; Ca:P ratio critical (4:1 to 9:1)

Turkeys:

• Highest protein requirement among poultry: 16-28% crude protein
• Grow faster than chickens

Ostrich Nutrition

• Monogastric herbivores; adaptive grazers
• Unique digestive system: 2 large ceca + long colon
• GIT pH: 6.9-7.3 (neutral to slightly acidic)
• Crude Fiber Requirements:
  • Until 9 weeks: 9-14% CF
  • 9-42 weeks: 14-18% CF
• Volatile fatty acids (VFAs): 76% of metabolizable energy
• Diet preference: low fat

Digestive System & Fermentation

Rabbits are hindgut fermenters with specialized cecal digestion.

• Intestinal Length: 1:10 body length ratio (horses 1:12)
• Cecotrophy: Consumption of soft feces to absorb microbial proteins and vitamins
• Fecal Types:
  • Hard pellets: >0.5mm indigestible fiber (normal feces)
  • Soft feces: <0.3mm digestible fiber (cecotrophy; contains microbial proteins, vitamins, B vitamins)

Feed Management

• Maintenance: Ad libitum grass hay for adult rabbits
• High Energy Diets: Can cause enteritis; must avoid overloading
• Suitable Grains: Oats and barley most suitable for rabbits
• Energy from VFAs: 40% of energy requirement from cecal fermentation

Female Rabbit (Doe) Reproduction

Gestation: 1 month (31 days)

Lactation: 5-6 weeks; peak lactation at 21 days (then declines)

• Peak Lactation: 3 weeks post-parturition
• Crude Protein: 17-18% for maximum production

Rabbit Milk Composition

Rabbit milk is the most concentrated milk of all mammals:

Component	Percentage/Content
Dry Matter (DM)	30-34% (highest of all species)
Fat	15-17%
Protein	11.5-13%
Lactose	2-2.5%
Minerals	3.6%

Kit (Juvenile) Development

• Dependency Period: 18-19 days on dam
• High Energy Requirements: Growth stage demands high-quality nutrition

Weaning & Meat Production

Weaning Age: 4-5 weeks

Meat Broiler Production:

• Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): 2.5-3.2 kg per kg gain
• Average Daily Gain (ADG): 32-38 grams
• Market Age: 10-12 weeks (70-85 days)
• Final Body Weight: ~2.5 kg
• Breed: New Zealand rabbit preferred for meat production

Digestive System Characteristics

Dogs are facultative carnivores with an efficient carnivorous digestive system.

• GIT Ratio: 1:6 body length to intestine length
• Stomach Capacity:
  • Small dogs: 0.5 liters
  • Large dogs: 8 liters
• Stomach Retention: 4-12 hours
• Small Intestine Transit: 2-6 minutes (very fast)
• Large Intestine Transit: Very slow despite short length (20-80 cm)
• Eating Speed: Faster than humans; gorging behavior common

Energy Requirements

RER (Resting Energy Requirements) calculated using metabolic body weight:

DER (Daily Energy Requirements) = Exponent × RER

Life Stage/Status	Exponent	Notes
Adult intact (maintenance)	1.8	Standard baseline
Pregnancy (final trimester)	3.0	Dramatically elevated demands

Dietary Fiber in Canine Nutrition

Fiber fermentability classification:

• Highly Fermentable: Fructans (produce maximum VFAs)
• Moderately Fermentable: Beet pulp
• Slow Fermentable: Cellulose

Pregnant & Lactating Bitch

Gestation: 60-63 days (9 weeks)

• First 2 Trimesters: Maintenance level requirements
• Last Trimester (Final 3 Weeks): Increase 25-50% depending on litter size
• Crude Protein: 22-23%
• Fat: 10-25%

Lactation: 6-7 weeks (most demanding physiological state)

• Peak Lactation: 3-4 weeks post-parturition
• Peak Energy Demand: 4× maintenance level
• Crude Protein: 25-35%
• Fat: >18%

Bitch Milk Composition

Dog milk is nutrient-dense for puppy development:

Component	Percentage	Comparison to Cow Milk
Dry Matter (DM)	21-23%	Higher
Protein	7.5%	Higher
Fat	9%	Higher
Energy (Kcal/100mL)	146	Higher

Puppy Development & Nutrition

Colostrum & Passive Immunity:

• Immunoglobulin (Ig) content: 10% in colostrum
• Placental transfer: 5% of total maternal Ig
• GIT absorption window: 12-24 hours post-birth
• Colostral secretion period: First 36-72 hours

Growth Timeline:

• 3 weeks: Introduction of semisolid food
• 5-7 weeks: Weaning begins
• 6-8 weeks: Weaning completed; 100% solid food
• Dry food:water ratio at 5-6 weeks: 2:1

Adult Weight Prediction:

• Small dogs (<25 kg adult): 50% adult weight by 4 months
• Large dogs (>25 kg adult): 50% adult weight by 5 months

Working Dog Nutrition

Energy substrate utilization based on exercise intensity:

• High Intensity Exercise: Glucose anaerobic metabolism (3 ATP/mole)
• Long Duration Exercise: Fat aerobic metabolism (18-400 ATP/mole)
• Carbohydrate Duration: Sustains exercise 3 minutes to 1.5-2.5 hours
• Fat Duration: Sustains exercise after 10 minutes lasting several hours
• Protein Energy Contribution: 5-15% of total energy during work

Obligate Carnivore Biology

Cats are obligate carnivores with specialized metabolic requirements unique among domesticated species.

• GIT Ratio: 1:4 body length to intestine length (shorter than dogs)
• Dentition: 30 teeth optimized for meat consumption
• Stomach Capacity: 300-350 mL
• Energy Source: Long-chain fatty acids (primary fuel)
• Carbohydrate Metabolism: Constitutive gluconeogenesis (no metabolic need for dietary carbohydrates)

Essential Amino Acids & Nutrients

Cats require nutrients synthesized by other species:

• Taurine: Essential amino acid
  • Functions: digestion, blood flow, eyesight, immunity
  • Roles: heart/brain/muscle development and function
  • Deficiency consequence: dilated cardiomyopathy, blindness
• Arachidonic Acid: Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid
  • Source: Animal tissues ONLY (no plant synthesis)
  • Cats cannot synthesize from linoleic acid
• Vitamin A (Retinol):
  • Preformed retinol from animal sources only
  • Cannot convert β-carotene to retinol

Specific Nutrient Requirements

• Arginine: Essential amino acid; deficiency causes ammonia accumulation and hyperammonemia
• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): Higher requirement than dogs; increases with higher protein intake
• Vitamin B3 (Niacin): Requirement 2.4-4× higher than dogs
  • Cannot convert tryptophan to niacin efficiently
• Vitamin D: Cannot synthesize sufficient vitamin D from sunlight exposure

Queen (Female) Nutrition

• Gestation: Nutritional demands increase for fetal development
• Lactation: Uses body reserves accumulated during gestation; requires increased dietary intake
• Enhanced protein and fat requirements during both phases

Kitten Nutrition & Passive Immunity

• Placental Transfer: 10% of maternal immunoglobulin
• Colostrum Importance: Critical for passive immunity
• Early nutrition supports rapid growth and development specific to feline metabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism in Cats

Unlike dogs and most mammals:

• Constitutive Gluconeogenesis: Continuous glucose production from non-carbohydrate sources
• Carbohydrate Necessity: Not essential for cat survival
• Digestible Carbs Function: Provide convenient, ready energy; not obligatory
• Cats maintain stable blood glucose through protein and fat metabolism even without dietary carbohydrates